Working From Home

The pandemic has led to a big shift to working from home among people in occupations where it is possible for the jobs or some part of them to be done remotely. There has been much debate about the extent to which such forms of working (or a hybrid model, with some hours done at home and some on business premises) will continue over the longer term. Key questions include the potential impact on employees’ productivity and their job satisfaction, and whether the career trajectories of women and men may be affected differently by a substantial increase in working from home.

In November 2021, we invited our US and European panels to express their views on these issues. We asked the experts whether they agreed or disagreed with the following statements, and, if so, how strongly and with what degree of confidence:

Not all occupations can be done even in part from home. For those that can:

a) Employees who spend two of their days each week working from home are, on average, likely to be more productive over the longer term.

b) Employees who spend two of their days each week working from home are, on average, likely to report higher levels of job satisfaction over the longer term.

c) Having the opportunity to work two to three days a week from home is, on average, likely to be more beneficial for women’s career progression than for that of their male colleagues.

Of our 43 US experts, 41 participated in this survey; of our 48 European experts, 41 participated – for a total of 82 expert reactions.

The impact of working from home on productivity

On the first statement about whether employees spending two of their days each week working from home are, on average, likely to be more productive over the longer term, a majority of panelists say that they are uncertain. Weighted by each expert’s confidence in their response, 5% of the panels strongly agree, 27% agree, 56% are uncertain, 12% disagree, and 0% strongly disagree.

The experts are able to include short comments in their responses, and among only two who strongly agree about a positive impact on productivity, one is Nicholas Bloom at Stanford, who has done a considerable amount of research in this area and whose work was cited by several panelists. He comments: ‘A growing body of research, natural experiments and RCTs [randomized controlled trials], finds moderate levels of WFH [working from home] increase employee productivity.’

Among others who agree, Franklin Allen at Imperial College London says: ‘Depends on the person’s level but provided this is sufficiently high, the reduction in time and effort from commuting is likely a benefit.’ Jan Pieter Krahnen at Goethe University Frankfurt states: ‘I think that over the longer term the productivity is more or less the same, as the innovation effect fades out.’ And Ricardo Reis at the London School of Economics (LSE) directs us to some evidence from Italy that the introduction of ‘smart working’ can have a positive effect on productivity, wellbeing and work-life balance.

Among the majority of panelists who say that they are uncertain, several share the view of Judith Chevalier at Yale: ‘I am pretty certain that there is not enough evidence to have a certain opinion.’ Others point out the difficulty of knowing what the average effect will be. Barry Eichengreen at Berkeley remarks: ‘All we know is some employees yes, other employees (where interpersonal contact is important) no. Average is still uncertain.’ And Richard Schmalensee at MIT responds: ‘Surely depends on the nature of the job and the management style of the firm. I’ve seen no evidence on the overall average.’

Several other experts note the importance of the nature of the work and an individual’s particular position. Christopher Pissarides at the LSE observes: ‘It depends on the nature of work and on the ability of the employee to concentrate on work when there are many alternative uses of home time.’ Robert Shimer at Chicago adds: ‘This will be very dependent on the particular position. The claim is more likely to be true for knowledge workers.’ John Van Reenen at the LSE suggests: ‘It will depend on the type of job one is doing. For creative occupations, social interaction is key so unclear if 40% at home will be better.’

Others comment on the impact on organizational interactions. Daron Acemoglu at MIT remarks: ‘We do not yet know long-run consequences on trust, collaboration and coordination in organizations.’ Anil Kashyap at Chicago notes: ‘There are competing forces, organizational capital depends on some in-person contact; can’t tell if three days in office is enough.’ His colleague Christian Leuz adds: ‘Short-run likely positive, but long-run unclear: effect on innovation, information sharing? Likely also depends on job, lots of heterogeneity.’

Among the panelists who disagree about a positive impact of working from home on productivity, Joseph Altonji at Yale suggests: ‘Maybe less productive on average, but it really depends on the job.’ Kenneth Judd at Stanford adds: ‘Most jobs require collaboration. The formal communication channels of email and Zoom lack the value of spontaneous meetings.’ Daniel Sturm at the LSE concurs: ‘Positive productivity spillovers in the office can likely not be fully replaced by Zoom and other measures.’

The impact of working from home on job satisfaction

On the second statement about whether employees who spend two of their days each week working from home are, on average, likely to report higher levels of job satisfaction over the longer term, a majority of panelists say that they agree. Weighted by each expert’s confidence in their response, 9% of the panels strongly agree, 60% agree, 31% are uncertain, and 0% disagree or strongly disagree.

Among those who agree or strongly agree, several point to evidence. David Autor at MIT says: ‘Lots of evidence that people prefer this arrangement. I suspect that in steady state, it will increase satisfaction.’ Nicholas Bloom adds: ‘Attrition rates from WFH jobs in RCTs are about half those of in-person jobs, and survey data shows a preference to WFH two days a week.’ And Christian Leuz notes: ‘Assuming they get to choose, self-selection suggests outcome. WFH in lockdown was mixed. But with choice, people likely value flexibility’, linking to the Bloom and colleagues’ evidence from an experiment in China.

Others express further caveats about choice and selection, as well as the possibility of longer-term regrets among those who prefer home working. Daron Acemoglu mentions: ‘Provided that it is a choice, not imposition.’ Barry Eichengreen adds: ‘Agree, but these may simply be people who work in occupations offering more flexibility and personal control (pattern is driven by selectivity).’ Anil Kashyap says: ‘Though if promotions lag eventually from insufficient organizational investment, they may have regrets.’ And Christopher Pissarides remarks: ‘In the short term yes, less travel, more time to oneself. In the longer term, maybe not if it delays promotion or pay rise.’

Several panelists comment on why job satisfaction might rise from higher levels of working from home. Darrell Duffie at Stanford observes: ‘Depends on their working conditions at home but if these are good then they should be better off.’ Richard Schmalensee agrees: ‘That’s what most seem to want, and it will likely make them happier. And John Van Reenen notes: ‘Will reduce commutes, which are most stressful parts of day for most people.’

Among the panelists who say that they are uncertain, Austan Goolsbee at Chicago asks: ‘Will employers expect them always to be on call?’ His colleague Lubos Pastor adds: ‘Likely to vary with seniority’; and another Chicago colleague Richard Thaler notes: ‘Again, no way to generalize. At Chicago Booth, there was a strong culture to come to the office. That can easily unravel, which would be bad.’

Kenneth Judd agrees: ‘The advantage of less commuting may balance the lower level of social interaction. And Robert Shimer concludes: ‘Again, a lot of heterogeneity. Revealed preference suggests many workers want to work from home, but this will decrease job attachment.’

The impact of working from home on women’s career progression

On the third statement about whether having the opportunity to work two to three days a week from home is, on average, like to be more beneficial for women’s career progression than for that of their male colleagues. Weighted by each expert’s confidence in their response, 1% of the panels strongly agree, 25% agree, 55% are uncertain, 17% disagree, and 2% strongly disagree.

Among those who agree about the positive effect, several comment on the value of job flexibility for women’s careers. Pinelopi Goldberg at Yale says: ‘More flexibility is good for the careers of women, especially when they have young children.’ David Autor notes that: ‘Claudia Goldin has documented that the economic costs of job inflexibility fall at present most heavily on women.’

Several who agree comment on social expectations of women’s role at home. Barry Eichengreen states: ‘Likely to be true insofar as women, for reasons of tradition and gender roles, are still responsible for more household/childcare duties.’ Darrell Duffie notes: ‘Many women have, historically at least, taken relatively greater responsibility for child rearing. This may provide added flexibility.’

Karl Whelan at University College Dublin declares: ‘I wish this wasn’t true – ideally child-minding duties would be shared equally – but in practice this probably is the case.’ Daron Acemoglu adds a caveat: ‘Provided that there are not perverse incentives, where women will be expected to work even harder to signal work-ahead-of-family commitment.’

Among those who say that they are uncertain, Nicholas Bloom states: ‘This might be correct, but I am not aware of robust evidence on this – indeed more research on this would be invaluable.’ And Larry Samuelson at Yale notes: ‘These key questions will play a role in shaping future working conditions and warrant careful study.’

Others explain how the outcome could go either way. Nicola Fuchs-Schündeln at Goethe University Frankfurt says: ‘On the positive side, it might increase hours worked for women. On the negative side, they will be less engaged in the office networks.’ Christopher Pissarides replies: ‘Pros: easier to combine office work with home production. Cons: more difficult to escape home production than in an office.’

Daniel Sturm, who is also uncertain, notes: ‘While remote working may well hold back the careers of both women and men equally, women will likely make more use of this option.’ John Van Reenen, who disagrees that working from home will benefit women, explains why that might be a problem: ‘Although good for participation, women may end up being less visible in workplace.’ Robert Shimer adds: Work-from-home likely means child-care-during-work for many people, particularly women.’

Others who disagree link to evidence. Christian Leuz comments: ‘Lots of evidence (e.g., COVID) that traditional gender roles in childcare persist, which can lead to gender differences in WFH that hurt [women’s] career progression.’ And finally, Ricardo Reis points to US evidence on alternative work arrangements.

All comments made by the experts are in the full survey results.

Romesh Vaitilingam
@econromesh
January 2022

Question A:

Employees who spend two of their days each week working from home are, on average, likely to be more productive over the longer term.

Responses weighted by each expert's confidence

Question B:

Employees who spend two of their days each week working from home are, on average, likely to report higher levels of job satisfaction over the longer term.

Responses weighted by each expert's confidence

Question C:

Having the opportunity to work two to three days a week from home is, on average, like to be more beneficial for women’s career progression than for that of their male colleagues.

Responses weighted by each expert's confidence

Question A Participant Responses

Participant University Vote Confidence Bio/Vote History
Allen
Franklin Allen
Imperial College London
Agree
5
Bio/Vote History
Depends on the person's level but provided this is sufficiently high the reduciton in time and effort from commuting is likely a benefit.
Antras
Pol Antras
Harvard Did Not Answer Bio/Vote History
Bandiera
Oriana Bandiera
London School of Economics Did Not Answer Bio/Vote History
Blanchard
Olivier Blanchard
Peterson Institute
No Opinion
Bio/Vote History
I have not seen studies, and introspection is too individual specific
Bloom
Nicholas Bloom
Stanford
Strongly Agree
10
Bio/Vote History
A growing body of research, natural experiments and RCTs, finds moderate levels of WFH increase employee productivity.
-see background information here
Blundell
Richard William Blundell
University College London
Uncertain
5
Bio/Vote History
Carletti
Elena Carletti
Bocconi
Agree
3
Bio/Vote History
Danthine
Jean-Pierre Danthine
Paris School of Economics
Agree
2
Bio/Vote History
De Grauwe
Paul De Grauwe
LSE
Agree
8
Bio/Vote History
Eeckhout
Jan Eeckhout
UPF Barcelona
Uncertain
5
Bio/Vote History
Fehr
Ernst Fehr
Universität Zurich
Agree
7
Bio/Vote History
Freixas
Xavier Freixas
Barcelona GSE
Agree
3
Bio/Vote History
Fuchs-Schündeln
Nicola Fuchs-Schündeln
Goethe-Universität Frankfurt
Uncertain
8
Bio/Vote History
Galí
Jordi Galí
Barcelona GSE Did Not Answer Bio/Vote History
Giavazzi
Francesco Giavazzi
Bocconi Did Not Answer Bio/Vote History
Griffith
Rachel Griffith
University of Manchester
Uncertain
6
Bio/Vote History
Guerrieri
Veronica Guerrieri
Chicago Booth Did Not Answer Bio/Vote History
Guiso
Luigi Guiso
Einaudi Institute for Economics and Finance
Uncertain
6
Bio/Vote History
there must be a lot of heterogeneity
Guriev
Sergei Guriev
Sciences Po
Uncertain
1
Bio/Vote History
Honohan
Patrick Honohan
Trinity College Dublin
Agree
1
Bio/Vote History
But depends a lot on the sector.
Javorcik
Beata Javorcik
University of Oxford
Agree
7
Bio/Vote History
Krahnen
Jan Pieter Krahnen
Goethe University Frankfurt
Agree
4
Bio/Vote History
I think that OVER THE LONGER TERM the productivity is more or less the same, as the innovation-effect fades out.
Kőszegi
Botond Kőszegi
Central European University
No Opinion
Bio/Vote History
La Ferrara
Eliana La Ferrara
Harvard Kennedy
Agree
4
Bio/Vote History
Leuz
Christian Leuz
Chicago Booth
Uncertain
4
Bio/Vote History
Short-run likely positive, but long-run unclear: effect on innovation, info sharing? Likely also depends on job, lots of heterogeneity
Mayer
Thierry Mayer
Sciences-Po
Uncertain
3
Bio/Vote History
Meghir
Costas Meghir
Yale
Uncertain
9
Bio/Vote History
Pagano
Marco Pagano
Università di Napoli Federico II
Strongly Agree
8
Bio/Vote History
Pastor
Lubos Pastor
Chicago Booth
Uncertain
3
Bio/Vote History
Depends on the nature of their work.
Persson
Torsten Persson
Stockholm University Did Not Answer Bio/Vote History
Pissarides
Christopher Pissarides
London School of Economics and Political Science
Uncertain
10
Bio/Vote History
it depends on the nature of work and on the ability of the employee to concentrate on work when there are many alternative uses of home time
Portes
Richard Portes
London Business School
Uncertain
4
Bio/Vote History
Prendergast
Canice Prendergast
Chicago Booth
Disagree
7
Bio/Vote History
Propper
Carol Propper
Imperial College London
Uncertain
5
Bio/Vote History
Rasul
Imran Rasul
University College London
Agree
6
Bio/Vote History
Reichlin
Lucrezia Reichlin
London Business School Did Not Answer Bio/Vote History
Reis
Ricardo Reis
London School of Economics
Agree
3
Bio/Vote History
Repullo
Rafael Repullo
CEMFI
Uncertain
4
Bio/Vote History
Rey
Hélène Rey
London Business School
Agree
3
Bio/Vote History
Schoar
Antoinette Schoar
MIT
Disagree
8
Bio/Vote History
Storesletten
Kjetil Storesletten
University of Minnesota
Disagree
3
Bio/Vote History
Sturm
Daniel Sturm
London School of Economics
Disagree
6
Bio/Vote History
Positive productivity spillovers in the office can likely not be fully replaced by Zoom and other measures.
Van Reenen
John Van Reenen
LSE
Uncertain
5
Bio/Vote History
It will depend on the type of job one is doing. For creative occupations, social interaction is key so unclear if 40% at home will be better
Vickers
John Vickers
Oxford
Disagree
3
Bio/Vote History
Voth
Hans-Joachim Voth
University of Zurich
Uncertain
5
Bio/Vote History
Whelan
Karl Whelan
University College Dublin
Uncertain
5
Bio/Vote History
I don't think we have much evidence to judge this on.
Wyplosz
Charles Wyplosz
The Graduate Institute Geneva
Agree
4
Bio/Vote History
Evidence is sketchy but tends to back this assertion.
Zilibotti
Fabrizio Zilibotti
Yale University
Agree
8
Bio/Vote History

Question B Participant Responses

Participant University Vote Confidence Bio/Vote History
Allen
Franklin Allen
Imperial College London
Agree
5
Bio/Vote History
Depends on their working conditions at home but if these are good then they should be better off.
Antras
Pol Antras
Harvard Did Not Answer Bio/Vote History
Bandiera
Oriana Bandiera
London School of Economics Did Not Answer Bio/Vote History
Blanchard
Olivier Blanchard
Peterson Institute
No Opinion
Bio/Vote History
i have not seen studies, and introspection is likely to be too individual specific
Bloom
Nicholas Bloom
Stanford
Strongly Agree
10
Bio/Vote History
Attrition rates from WFH jobs in RCTs are about half those of in person jobs, and survey data shows a preference to WFH 2 days a week
-see background information here
Blundell
Richard William Blundell
University College London
Uncertain
5
Bio/Vote History
Carletti
Elena Carletti
Bocconi
Agree
3
Bio/Vote History
Danthine
Jean-Pierre Danthine
Paris School of Economics
Agree
3
Bio/Vote History
De Grauwe
Paul De Grauwe
LSE
Agree
7
Bio/Vote History
Eeckhout
Jan Eeckhout
UPF Barcelona
Agree
7
Bio/Vote History
Fehr
Ernst Fehr
Universität Zurich
Agree
7
Bio/Vote History
Freixas
Xavier Freixas
Barcelona GSE
Strongly Agree
7
Bio/Vote History
Fuchs-Schündeln
Nicola Fuchs-Schündeln
Goethe-Universität Frankfurt
Agree
6
Bio/Vote History
Galí
Jordi Galí
Barcelona GSE Did Not Answer Bio/Vote History
Giavazzi
Francesco Giavazzi
Bocconi Did Not Answer Bio/Vote History
Griffith
Rachel Griffith
University of Manchester
Agree
6
Bio/Vote History
Guerrieri
Veronica Guerrieri
Chicago Booth Did Not Answer Bio/Vote History
Guiso
Luigi Guiso
Einaudi Institute for Economics and Finance
Uncertain
6
Bio/Vote History
Guriev
Sergei Guriev
Sciences Po
Uncertain
1
Bio/Vote History
Honohan
Patrick Honohan
Trinity College Dublin
Agree
1
Bio/Vote History
Javorcik
Beata Javorcik
University of Oxford
Agree
7
Bio/Vote History
Krahnen
Jan Pieter Krahnen
Goethe University Frankfurt
Agree
4
Bio/Vote History
In terms of job satisfaction, staying at home 2/5 days may be doing wonder...
Kőszegi
Botond Kőszegi
Central European University
No Opinion
Bio/Vote History
La Ferrara
Eliana La Ferrara
Harvard Kennedy
Agree
4
Bio/Vote History
Leuz
Christian Leuz
Chicago Booth
Agree
5
Bio/Vote History
Assuming they get to choose, self-selection suggests outcome. WFH in lockdown was mixed. But w/choice, people likely value flexibility
-see background information here
Mayer
Thierry Mayer
Sciences-Po
Agree
3
Bio/Vote History
Meghir
Costas Meghir
Yale
Uncertain
9
Bio/Vote History
Pagano
Marco Pagano
Università di Napoli Federico II
Strongly Agree
8
Bio/Vote History
Pastor
Lubos Pastor
Chicago Booth
Uncertain
3
Bio/Vote History
Likely to vary with seniority.
Persson
Torsten Persson
Stockholm University Did Not Answer Bio/Vote History
Pissarides
Christopher Pissarides
London School of Economics and Political Science
Agree
8
Bio/Vote History
in the short term yes, less travel, more time to oneself. In the longer term maybe not if it delays promotion or pay rise
Portes
Richard Portes
London Business School
Uncertain
4
Bio/Vote History
Prendergast
Canice Prendergast
Chicago Booth
Agree
7
Bio/Vote History
Propper
Carol Propper
Imperial College London
Uncertain
5
Bio/Vote History
Rasul
Imran Rasul
University College London
Agree
6
Bio/Vote History
Reichlin
Lucrezia Reichlin
London Business School Did Not Answer Bio/Vote History
Reis
Ricardo Reis
London School of Economics
Agree
3
Bio/Vote History
Repullo
Rafael Repullo
CEMFI
Agree
4
Bio/Vote History
Rey
Hélène Rey
London Business School
Agree
3
Bio/Vote History
Schoar
Antoinette Schoar
MIT
Uncertain
1
Bio/Vote History
Storesletten
Kjetil Storesletten
University of Minnesota
Uncertain
3
Bio/Vote History
Sturm
Daniel Sturm
London School of Economics
Agree
4
Bio/Vote History
Van Reenen
John Van Reenen
LSE
Agree
6
Bio/Vote History
Will reduce commutes which are most stressful parts of day for most people
Vickers
John Vickers
Oxford
Uncertain
3
Bio/Vote History
Voth
Hans-Joachim Voth
University of Zurich
Uncertain
5
Bio/Vote History
Whelan
Karl Whelan
University College Dublin
Agree
8
Bio/Vote History
This certainly seems true. And job satisfaction clearly influences productivity. But so do things like having a well-functioning team.
Wyplosz
Charles Wyplosz
The Graduate Institute Geneva
Agree
5
Bio/Vote History
Zilibotti
Fabrizio Zilibotti
Yale University
Uncertain
5
Bio/Vote History

Question C Participant Responses

Participant University Vote Confidence Bio/Vote History
Allen
Franklin Allen
Imperial College London
Uncertain
6
Bio/Vote History
Not sure about this.
Antras
Pol Antras
Harvard Did Not Answer Bio/Vote History
Bandiera
Oriana Bandiera
London School of Economics Did Not Answer Bio/Vote History
Blanchard
Olivier Blanchard
Peterson Institute
Agree
6
Bio/Vote History
Bloom
Nicholas Bloom
Stanford
Uncertain
10
Bio/Vote History
This might be correct, but I am not aware of robust evidence on this - indeed more research on this would be invaluable.
Blundell
Richard William Blundell
University College London
Disagree
Bio/Vote History
Carletti
Elena Carletti
Bocconi
Agree
3
Bio/Vote History
Danthine
Jean-Pierre Danthine
Paris School of Economics
Agree
2
Bio/Vote History
De Grauwe
Paul De Grauwe
LSE
Uncertain
5
Bio/Vote History
Eeckhout
Jan Eeckhout
UPF Barcelona
Uncertain
5
Bio/Vote History
Fehr
Ernst Fehr
Universität Zurich
Uncertain
6
Bio/Vote History
Freixas
Xavier Freixas
Barcelona GSE
Uncertain
5
Bio/Vote History
Fuchs-Schündeln
Nicola Fuchs-Schündeln
Goethe-Universität Frankfurt
Uncertain
6
Bio/Vote History
On the positive side, it might increase hours worked for women. On the negative side, they will be less engaged in the office networks.
Galí
Jordi Galí
Barcelona GSE Did Not Answer Bio/Vote History
Giavazzi
Francesco Giavazzi
Bocconi Did Not Answer Bio/Vote History
Griffith
Rachel Griffith
University of Manchester
Uncertain
6
Bio/Vote History
Guerrieri
Veronica Guerrieri
Chicago Booth Did Not Answer Bio/Vote History
Guiso
Luigi Guiso
Einaudi Institute for Economics and Finance
Uncertain
5
Bio/Vote History
Guriev
Sergei Guriev
Sciences Po
Disagree
5
Bio/Vote History
Honohan
Patrick Honohan
Trinity College Dublin
Agree
1
Bio/Vote History
Javorcik
Beata Javorcik
University of Oxford
Disagree
7
Bio/Vote History
Krahnen
Jan Pieter Krahnen
Goethe University Frankfurt
Uncertain
5
Bio/Vote History
Sorry, no clue on this one...
Kőszegi
Botond Kőszegi
Central European University
No Opinion
Bio/Vote History
La Ferrara
Eliana La Ferrara
Harvard Kennedy
Agree
3
Bio/Vote History
Leuz
Christian Leuz
Chicago Booth
Disagree
3
Bio/Vote History
Lots evidence (e.g., COVID) that trad gender roles in childcare persist, which can lead to gender diff in WFH that hurt career progression
-see background information here
Mayer
Thierry Mayer
Sciences-Po
Uncertain
3
Bio/Vote History
Meghir
Costas Meghir
Yale
Agree
9
Bio/Vote History
Pagano
Marco Pagano
Università di Napoli Federico II
Uncertain
6
Bio/Vote History
Pastor
Lubos Pastor
Chicago Booth
Uncertain
3
Bio/Vote History
Persson
Torsten Persson
Stockholm University Did Not Answer Bio/Vote History
Pissarides
Christopher Pissarides
London School of Economics and Political Science
Uncertain
10
Bio/Vote History
Pros: easier to combine office work with home production. Cons: more difficult to escape home production than in an office
Portes
Richard Portes
London Business School
Strongly Disagree
7
Bio/Vote History
Prendergast
Canice Prendergast
Chicago Booth
Uncertain
7
Bio/Vote History
Propper
Carol Propper
Imperial College London
Uncertain
5
Bio/Vote History
Rasul
Imran Rasul
University College London
Disagree
6
Bio/Vote History
Reichlin
Lucrezia Reichlin
London Business School Did Not Answer Bio/Vote History
Reis
Ricardo Reis
London School of Economics
Disagree
3
Bio/Vote History
Repullo
Rafael Repullo
CEMFI
Uncertain
4
Bio/Vote History
Rey
Hélène Rey
London Business School
Uncertain
3
Bio/Vote History
Schoar
Antoinette Schoar
MIT
Disagree
8
Bio/Vote History
Storesletten
Kjetil Storesletten
University of Minnesota
Uncertain
5
Bio/Vote History
Sturm
Daniel Sturm
London School of Economics
Uncertain
4
Bio/Vote History
While remote working may well hold back the careers of both women and men equally, women will likely make more use of this option.
Van Reenen
John Van Reenen
LSE
Disagree
6
Bio/Vote History
Although good for participation, women may end up being less visible in workplace
-see background information here
Vickers
John Vickers
Oxford
Agree
3
Bio/Vote History
Voth
Hans-Joachim Voth
University of Zurich
Agree
6
Bio/Vote History
Whelan
Karl Whelan
University College Dublin
Agree
10
Bio/Vote History
I wish this wasn't true -- ideally child-minding duties would be shared equally -- but in practice this probably is the case.
Wyplosz
Charles Wyplosz
The Graduate Institute Geneva
Uncertain
4
Bio/Vote History
I haven't seen any evidence for or against.
Zilibotti
Fabrizio Zilibotti
Yale University
Uncertain
5
Bio/Vote History